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79. ‘‘Resource Letter GI-1: Gauge Invariance,’’ T. P. Cheng and L. F. Li,
Am. J. Phys. 56, 586–600 ~1988!. ~E–A!
80. ‘‘Resource Letter HEPP-1: History of Elementary Particle Physics,’’ R.
C. Hovis and H. Kragh, Am. J. Phys. 59, 779–807 ~1991!. ~E–A!
81. ‘‘Quantum Chromodynamics,’’ A. S. Kronfeld and C. Quigg, in prepa-
ration. ~E–A!
V. HISTORICAL REFERENCES
A symposium on the history of Symmetries in Physics
from 1600 to 198082 contains many informative articles. For
a series of conferences on the history of particle physics,
culminating in the rise of the Standard Model, see Refs. 83–
85. The history of quantum electrodynamics is detailed in
Ref. 86, while Pais87 has chronicled the development of par-
ticle physics with particular emphasis on its earlier aspects. A
review of some later developments is given in Ref. 88. Per-
sonal memoirs include those of a theorist with close ties to
experiment ~ Sam B. Treiman89! and a Nobel-prize-winning
experimentalist ~Jack Steinberger90!. A collection of articles
on supersymmetry with a historical flavor is based on a re-
cent symposium.91 Two excellent accounts of experimental
high energy physics by P. Galison are Refs. 92 and 93.
82. First International Meeting on the History of Scientific Ideas, St.
Feliu de Guixols, Catalonia, Spain, Sept. 20–26, 1983, edited by M. G.
Doncel, A. Hermann, L. Michel, and A. Pais ~Barcelona, Autonoma
Univ., Phys. Dept., 1987!. ~I!
83. The Birth of Particle Physics. Proceedings, International Sympo-
sium, Batavia, USA, May 28– 31, 1980, edited by L. M. Brown and
L. Hoddeson ~Cambridge U. P., Cambridge, MA, 1983!. ~I!
84. Pions to Quarks: Particle Physics in the 1950s. Proceedings, 2nd
International Symposium on the History of Particle Physics, Bata-
via, USA, May 1– 4, 1985, edited by L. M. Brown, L. Hoddeson, and
M. Dresden ~Cambridge U. P., Cambridge, MA, 1989 !. ~I!
85. The Rise of the Standard Model: Particle Physics in the 1960s and
1970s, edited by L. Hoddeson, L. Brown, M. Riordan, and M. Dres-
den, based on 3rd International Symposium on the History of Particle
Physics: The Rise of the Standard Model, Stanford, CA, 24–27 June
1992 ~Cambridge U. P., Cambridge, MA, 1997!. ~I!
86. QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger,
and Tomonaga, S. S. Schweber ~Princeton University Press, 1994!. ~I!
87. Inward Bound, A. Pais ~Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986!. ~I!
88. ‘‘Elementary Particle Physics in the Second Half of the 20th Century,’’
V. L. Fitch and J. L. Rosner, in Twentieth Century Physics, edited by
L. M. Brown, A. Pais, and B. Pippard, Vol. 2, pp. 635–794 ~IOP,
Philadelphia, 1994!. ~I!
89. ‘‘A Life in Particle Physics,’’ S. Treiman, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci.
46, 1–30 ~1996!. ~E!
90. ‘‘Early Particles,’’ J. Steinberger, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 47, xiii–
xlii ~1997!. ~E!
91. The Supersymmetric World: The Beginning of the Theory, edited
by G. L. Kane and M. Shifman ~World Scientific, Singapore, 2000!.
~A!
91. How Experiments End, P. Galison ~Univ. of Chicago Press, 1987!. ~I!
93. Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics, P. Galison
~Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1997 !. ~I!
VI. POPULAR LITERATURE
A. Books
For descriptions of particle theory in a cosmological con-
text see Refs. 94, 95. A well-written account of the experi-
ments that led to the idea of quarks being taken seriously is
given in Ref. 96. The goals of particle theory are described in
Refs. 97–99, while Refs. 100, 101 give the case for a fully
unified theory. The ongoing search for the Higgs particle and
many other efforts in particle physics are treated by Ref. 102.
Gordon Fraser, the former editor of the CERN Courier, has
written or edited several fine books on particle physics aimed
at general audiences.103–106 One recent popular book on
quantum mechanics has been written by Sam Treiman.107
Many fine popularizations have been written by Richard P.
Feynman, including his book on quantum electrodynamics108
and his Dirac Memorial Lecture, jointly in a volume with
that by Steven Weinberg.109
94. The First Three Minutes: a Modern View of the Origin of the
Universe, S. Weinberg ~Basic Books, New York, 1977!. ~I!
95. The Cosmic Code: Quantum Physics as the Language of Nature,
H. R. Pagels ~Simon and Schuster, New York, 1982 !. ~E!
96. The Hunting of the Quark: A True Story of Modern Physics,
Michael Riordan ~Simon and Schuster, New York, 1987!. ~E!
97. Longing for the Harmonies: Themes and Variations from Modern
Physics, F. Wilczek and B. Devine ~Norton, New York, 1988!. ~E!
98. The Particle Garden, G. Kane ~Addison-Wesley, Helix Books, New
York, 1995!. ~E!
99. In Search of the Ultimate Building Blocks, G. ’t Hooft ~Cambridge
U. P., Cambridge, MA, 1997!. ~E!
100. The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the
Quest of the Ultimate Theory, B. R. Greene ~Norton, New York,
1999!. ~E!
101. Dreams of a Final Theory: The Search for the Fundamental Laws
of Nature, S. Weinberg ~Pantheon Books, New York, 1992!. ~E!
102. The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the
Question?, L. M. Lederman and D. Teresi ~Houghton Mifflin, Bos-
ton, MA, 1993!. ~E!
103. The Search for Infinity: Solving the Mysteries of the Universe, G.
Fraser, E. Lillesto” l, and I. Selleva˚g ~Facts on File, New York, 1995!.
~E!
104. The Quark Machines: How Europe Fought the Particle Physics
War, G. Fraser ~Institute of Physics, Bristol and Philadelphia, 1997 !.
~E!
105. The Particle Century, edited by G. Fraser ~Institute of Physics, Bris-
tol and Philadelphia, 1998!. ~E!
106. Antimatter: The Ultimate Mirror, G. Fraser ~Cambridge Univ.
Press, 2000!. ~E!
107. The Odd Quantum, S. Treiman ~Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton,
NJ, 1999!. ~E!
108. QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter, R. P. Feynman
~Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, 1985!. ~E!
109. Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 P. A. M.
Dirac Memorial Lectures, R. P. Feynman and S. Weinberg ~Cam-
bridge U. P., Cambridge, MA, 1987!. ~I!
B. Articles
Instructive popular articles ~in more or less chronological
order! include ones by Lederman on the discovery of the
Upsilon particle ~the first evidence for the b quark! ,110
’t Hooft on gauge theories,111 Wilczek112 and Quinn and
Witherell113 on matter-antimatter asymmetry, Georgi on
quark-lepton and strong-electroweak unification,114
Weinberg,115 Losecco et al., 116 and Langacker117 on proton
decay, Quigg on elementary particles and forces,118 Haber
and Kane on supersymmetry,119 Veltman on the Higgs
boson,120 Krauss on dark matter in the Universe,121 Green122
and Duff123 on string theory, Rees on the Stanford Linear
Collider,124 Bahcall on the solar neutrino problem,125 Myers
and Picasso on the LEP Collider at CERN,126 Lederman on
the Fermilab Tevatron,127 Feldman and Steinberger on mea-
surements at LEP and SLC suggesting the existence of three
families of quarks and leptons,128 Liss and Tipton on the
discovery of the top quark,129 Hogan et al. on supernova
surveys and the accelerating Universe,130 Kearns et al. on
detecting massive neutrinos,131 Weinberg on the goal of a
truly unified theory132 ~see below for an Internet link on this
article!, Llewellyn Smith on the Large Hadron Collider,133
Caldwell and Kamionkowski,134 and Gibbs135 on the cosmic
306 306 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 71, No. 4, April 2003 Jonathan L. Rosner